Closing the Gap between Practice
Environments and Reality:
An Interactive Multimedia Program for Oral
Communication Training in Japanese
Part 1. Theory
Michio Tsutsui, Masashi Kato, and Bradley
Mohr
This paper consists of two parts. Part 1
discusses theoretical issues related to the software program to be introduced
here, and Part 2 deals with practical issues, including technical and
pedagogical considerations in implementing the program. The structure of Part 1
is as follows: Section 1 provides some pedagogical concepts upon which the
development of this software program is based. Section 2 discusses technologies
necessary for developing the program. Sections 3 and 4 explain the components
of the program and how it works. Finally, Section 5 presents the merits of the
program with concluding remarks.
1. Pedagogical background
1.1. Communicative approach and
methodological changes
Since the communicative approach came into
the main stream of foreign language teaching in the 70's, the focus has shifted
from teaching skills to generate grammatically accurate sentences, the primary
objective of the audio-lingual method, to teaching skills to perform intended
communications.[1] The communicative approach, also referred to as
communicative language teaching (CLT), has introduced a number of new concepts
to enhance foreign language teaching. Syllabi based on this approach focus on a
new set of objectives and activities.[2] The major commonalities of these syllabi
are:
1.
The acquisition of communicative competence is set as the primary goal.
2.
Units are designed based on functions and notions.
3.
Language items are contextualized.
4.
Activities are designed to train communicative skills.
5.
Used sentences are "meaningful" (i.e., commonly used in real
situations).
In short, CLT has caused a drastic change
in foreign language instruction. More specifically, functions,
contextualization and meaningfulness have become important issues in terms of
content, and activities which involve meaningful tasks, such as role plays and
simulations, have been considered essential as part of class activities.
1.2. From learning to acquisition
CLT has changed foreign language teaching
significantly. However, it is evident that in order to achieve reasonable
communicative skills, the acquisition of linguistic skills to control grammar
and vocabulary is still fundamental.[3] As shown in Figure 1, such linguistic
skills are acquired based on a knowledge of linguistic items such as grammar
rules and vocabulary items. Acquired linguistic skills are then integrated into
communicative skills which includes socio-cultural skills (such as speech level
control and body language) and communication strategies.[4]
In order to acquire communicative skills
effectively, some specialists suggest a gradual shift from a linguistic skills
focus to a communicative skills focus.[5] Takanashi (1992), for example,
illustrates the gradation of activities as in Figure 2.
Here, activities become more creative as
they go rightward, and more meaningful as they go upward. The activities in (A)
and (B) - (D) roughly correspond to Stage 2 and Stage 3 in Figure 1,
respectively. It is suggested that activities be arranged sequentially from the
least creative and meaningful to the most creative and meaningful.
1.3. Model dialogues
One of the most common activities aiming to
teach communicative skills is probably role-playing based on model dialogues.
Role-playing is in fact a very effective activity for teaching communicative
skills if properly performed. However, effective role-playing in class is not
easy to execute for a number of reasons. First, as listed below, several
factors make it difficult for students to prepare themselves for class activities.
0.
Model dialogues, which are often taken from textbooks, are too long and/or too
difficult because they involve too many new linguistic items.
1.
Model dialogues are unfocused in terms of functions.
2.
Model dialogues are not related to students' current lives.
3.
Model dialogues are not applicable to situations students are likely to
encounter in the future.
Second, classes are often too large and the
time is too limited for every student to practice role plays effectively. In
addition, even prepared students (i.e., those who have learned assigned model
dialogues) cannot perform well in simulated situations, particularly when the
dialogue involves non-linguistic elements such as body language.
1.4. Nihongo Partner and premises
In order to solve the problems mentioned
above, the University
of Washington
Premise (1) Real communication
The first premise is one of the three
principles that Richards and Rogers (1986) identified of an underlying learning
theory which can be discerned in CLT practices.
Communication Principle: Activities that
involve real communication promote learning. (p. 72)
An implication of this principle is that
language learning activities should involve real or close-to-real
communication. The reality is, however, that students' activities at home or at
the lab can hardly involve real or close-to-real communication due to the fact
that they are mostly alone and practice equipment is limited. In addition, it
is often the case that, even in classrooms, activities involving such
communication cannot be performed effectively for the reasons mentioned
earlier. Nihongo Partner attempts to give "reality" to individual
practice environments at the lab and at home, and to prepare students better
for classroom activities which involve real communication.
Premise (2) Anxiety
A second premise has to do with anxiety.
Krashen (1982) presents a set of hypotheses with regard to second language
acquisition. One of them is the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which concerns
motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. The most relevant item here is
anxiety. Krashen states:
Anxiety: Low personal anxiety and low
classroom anxiety are more conducive to second language learning.
In fact, one of the reasons students cannot
perform model dialogues or role plays well in class is that their anxiety level
is high. This is partly because they do not practice model dialogues beforehand
in an environment which is close to their classroom environment. In other
words, there is too large a gap between the individual practice environment and
the classroom environment. By presenting a visible conversation partner on the
computer screen and by providing verbal and visual cues when students practice
conversation materials, Nihongo Partner aims to prepare students for situations
where they often feel pressure and cannot perform well. The
"seamless" practice environments that LP provides are also expected
to help lower learners' anxiety level when they use the language in real
situations.
Premise (3) Mastery of model dialogues
Another premise has to do with the mastery
of model dialogues. In domains such as sports and the performing arts, it is
essential to master basic forms or skills in order to achieve a high-level
performance. We believe that this is also true of language learning. Our
premise states, "mastering meaningful model dialogues with a focused
function promotes acquisition of communicative skills." Here, meaningful
dialogues mean dialogues learners can apply to situations they are likely to encounter,
and mastering model dialogues means mastering both linguistic and
non-linguistic items. Linguistic items include vocabulary items, syntactic
rules, and communicative meanings such as request and suggestion, while
non-linguistic items include meanings conveyed by body language and ways of
uttering phrases or sentences. By considering the problems of textbook
dialogues mentioned earlier, Nihongo Partner's model dialogues are designed so
that learners can master them as effortlessly as possible.
2. Technologies for Nihongo Partner
To implement the concept of Nihongo
Partner, a careful examination of the available technologies is necessary. In
order for LP to be an effective language learning tool as designed, it must
have the following capabilities:
1.
Multimedia capability
Nihongo Partner must be able to handle high-quality recorded video and
audio, as well as text. It must also have the ability to record and play back
audio at relatively high quality.
2.
Direct access to video segments
The video segments must be accessible non-sequentially, so that the
program can jump directly to any point of a dialogue.
3.
Instantaneous video playback and stop
Video playback must be capable of starting and stopping the video
instantaneously to assure a natural flow of dialogue.
4.
Capability to store and retrieve a large volume of video segments
In order to play a major role in language teaching and to serve many
users, the system must be able to store a large number of separate segments and
these segments must be retrievable on-demand.
5.
Capability to expand and customize the video library
Expandability is an important concern. Therefore, LP must allow
instructors to create new video segments to add to the library using commonly-available
video equipment and low-end digitizing equipment so that they can tailor the
program to their own needs. LP must also enable instructors to customize the
video library according to their needs.
6.
Multi-language capability
This requirement may be obvious, but the technology must allow for
simultaneous display of multiple languages (in this case, English and
Japanese), as well as easy switching from one language mode to another.
7.
Affordable equipment cost for institutions and individuals
Most instructors have a relatively modest equipment budget. LP must
allow instructors to use existing equipment, and must not require expensive new
tools for use and materials development.
In light of these requirements, most of the
conventional technologies must be abandoned. Audio tapes fail on a number of
points including their lack of true multimedia capability, as do video tapes
because of their inability to provide quick, non-sequential access to segments.
Although both of these technologies use widely-available, affordable equipment
for recording and playback, they simply cannot fulfill the needs of Nihongo
Partner.
Laser disks overcome many of the hurdles
that audio and video tapes cannot clear. For example, segments recorded on
laser disk can be accessed directly and quickly. However, production of new
segments on laser disk is out of the reach of most instructors. Creation of new
laser disk content is costly and requires specialized equipment. Once new
content has been produced, it is impossible to modify it. Furthermore,
integrating segments of different disks for customization is nearly impossible.
The only technology that fully fulfills the
technical requirements of LP is computer-based digital video. Readily available
personal computers are fully capable of providing a rich multilingual and
multimedia experience with audio, video, and text freely mixed in a single
environment. A large volume of digital video segments can be stored and
accessed quickly, and new segments can be added easily. Video can be played
back beginning at any point in the video segment, making it possible to jump
directly to the beginning of a single line of dialogue. A wide variety of
inexpensive hardware and software products are available to digitize and edit video
segments. Most important, computer-based digital video leverages equipment that
most instructors already have available.
3. Components
Nihongo Partner contains a library of short
digitized video segments and an interface which helps learners practice the
dialogues presented in those video segments. Each lesson consists of a
preparatory session and a dialogue practice session involving a video segment
which focuses on a specific task and/or situation such as "Asking
permission to use a colleague's computer." Throughout each lesson,
non-verbal as well as verbal skills are taught and practiced. Figure 3
elaborates on the components of LP.
Figure 3: Nihongo Partner Components
3.1. Video segments
The dialogues in video segments are
designed so that learners can master them with a minimum effort and apply them
to in-class role plays and other communicative activities as well as real-life
situations. For example, the dialogues are limited to four to six lines. This
length allows for a meaningful exchange between speakers, yet is short enough
for learners to master the new linguistic items relatively quickly. Similarly,
the content of the dialogues is focused on one or two functions within a single
context.
Each dialogue situation is videotaped from
three different viewpoints: a third-person perspective, and the viewpoint of
each of the two speakers. The third-person perspective video is used as an
overview for dialogue presentation and for comprehension checks. The scenes
from the viewpoint of each speaker are used both for a "Repeat After Me
Session" and for an "Interaction Session."
The digitized video for each dialogue is
accompanied by dialogue text in Japanese and an English translation. The
translation is designed to convey the overall meaning of the dialogue, rather
than providing word-by-word glosses. In this way LP tries to lead learners to
focus on messages they are supposed to convey instead of the meaning of each
vocabulary item.
3.2. Library of video segments
Dialogue segments in Nihongo Partner are
organized in a database. The database contains not only the digitized video and
dialogue text for each segment, but also higher-level information about the
segment. For example, each segment is tagged with a unique segment ID. This ID
number encodes information such as the source (producer) of the segment,
instructional level, and serial number. Each segment also includes a brief
description. This description is composed of both structured information, such
as author, title, production date, functions, keywords, and associated
textbook, and a narrative description of the contents of the dialogue situation
(see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Nihongo Partner Database
This database structure allows for a very
flexible use of Nihongo Partner in a wide variety of instructional situations.
Using the LP Database Tool, instructors can search the database for segments
that meet a certain set of criteria based on a segment description or ID. For
example, an instructor could find all segments produced by the Technical Japanese
Program that target a professional audience and pertain to "leave
taking." In this way, the instructor is able to choose segments that are
relevant to his or her students and targeted to the appropriate skill level. A
menu of situations selected by the instructor is automatically displayed by the
LP application. In addition to the search function, instructors can choose to
include or exclude individual segments based on preference or other information
not included in the description. Instructors can reorder, group, and annotate
selected segments and save the selection set for later use.
One advantage of this library system is its
open-endedness. New segments can be added to LP at any time using the LP Author
tool; the program will automatically recognize the new segments and incorporate
them into the database. Not only does this allow an instructor to add new
segments easily, but it also enables a broad collaboration among various
institutions. Thus, we expect that, over time, a large shared collection of LP
segments will be developed covering a much wider selection of situations than
any one institution could develop on its own.
3.3 Interface
The user interface of Nihongo Partner is
designed to be as unobtrusive as possible. The program's interface is at all
times secondary to the content presented by the interface. This philosophy
allows LP to provide a natural, low-anxiety setting for language practice while
also guiding the user effectively through the various phases of the program.
The naturalness of the interaction between
the learner and his or her on-screen "partner" is of utmost
importance in LP, and the interface has taken this into consideration. The
timing and flow of dialogue interaction has been optimized to permit
nearly-instantaneous video playback, so that when a learner finishes reciting a
line of dialogue, the digitized video partner continues the conversation
without pause, just as a real partner would. During conversation practice, the
learner is largely unaware of the interface; the program simply behaves as the
user expects. For example, when the learner chooses to record his or her voice
for comparison to the model, the record function is triggered automatically at
the end of the model's dialogue line. The cursor changes into a microphone,
indicating that the program has started recording the user's voice. When the
line has been spoken, the learner simply clicks the mouse to stop recording and
continue with the dialogue. This contrasts sharply with many other applications
in which a separate recording window is presented with audiotape-style controls
to record, stop, and save the sound.
The LP application consists of three
distinct phases of interaction through which the learner should progress in a
pedagogically sound sequence to gain the most from the program. The interface
gently guides the user from one phase to the next in this sequence. Although
the learner may backtrack to further practice an earlier phase, the forward
progress is reinforced by the interface. For example, following the completion
of the comprehension questions at the end of the preparatory phase, the program
automatically shifts to the "repeat-after-me" phase.
Finally, several more general interface
issues have been addressed in LP. The interface reinforces learning the target
language by making the English translation available only when the user is
holding down an on-screen button. Because this button must be released to
continue with the program, it is impossible for the learner to rely on the
English translation; instead, the learner must focus on the verbal and
non-verbal cues present in the digitized video. In addition, the interface has
been kept as clean and streamlined as possible, with a minimum of visual
clutter. Interface elements that are unnecessary or extraneous for a given
phase of the program's operation are hidden from view. Similarly, the
background images, while subtly conveying a Japanese theme, are subdued to
avoid the possibility of distracting from the foreground content.
4. Practice Sessions
Nihongo Partner is designed so that
learners can master model dialogues as effortlessly as possible by following a
series of sessions in order.
4.1. Preparatory Session
In the preparatory session, learners first
select a desired dialogue from a situation menu. This menu presents a set of
model dialogues which have been selected from the video library and composed
properly by the instructor. Learners start a lesson by watching the selected
dialogue from a third-person perspective (Figure 5). Their task here is to
comprehend the dialogue in terms of its situation, verbal content, and the
meanings of non-verbal messages. Before moving on to the following sessions,
learners self-check their comprehension by answering a set of comprehension
questions based on linguistic and cultural content, such as the relationship
between the speakers, speech level, and cultural meanings attached to specific
expressions.
Figure 5: LP Preparatory Session
4.2. "Repeat After Me" Practice
Session
In the "Repeat after Me"
practice, learners practice the lines of one speaker in the dialogue by
repeating after him/her as a model while watching him/her face to face on a
computer monitor (Figure 6). During this session learners practice not only
accurate pronunciation, intonation, and timing of utterances, but also involved
body language. Through this practice, learners can easily internalize both
verbal and non-verbal components of a dialogue. During the practice learners
can choose any portion of the dialogue and that portion can be as little as one
line or as much as the entire dialogue to practice at a time depending on the
level of mastery. When learners are ready, they can record their voices and
compare them with the model. When learners have mastered one speaker's lines,
they practice the other speaker's in the same way. In some dialogue situations,
learners may not need to practice the other speaker's lines (e.g., conversation
with a hotel clerk).
Figure 6: LP "Repeat After Me"
Practice Session
In this session and the interaction
practice session which follows, learners may need to see the dialogue text at
the beginning. However, it should be suppressed as early as possible in order
to acquire the targeted skills effectively.
4.3. Interaction Practice Session
When learners have completed the
"Repeat after Me" session, they enter the interaction practice
session, where they take the role of one of the speakers and practice the
dialogue with the other speaker who appears on the computer monitor. This
speaker is the learners' conversation "partner." Just as in the
"Repeat after Me Session," learners can select the portion of the
dialogue to practice by highlighting lines on the text, and can record their
voices and compare them with the model to check timing of utterances.
As illustrated above, NP's three practice
sessions work together to make learners' mastery of model dialogues as easy as
possible. NP's capability to allow learners to practice dialogues with a
"partner" also lends reality to an individual practice environment.
In addition, it is expected to lower learners' level of anxiety when they
communicate in classroom activities and in real conversation situations.
5. Merits
Language learning using Nihongo Partner has
several pedagogical merits. First, Nihongo Partner creates an air of reality in
the learner's practice environment at the lab and at home. In the interaction
practice session, for example, learners can practice dialogues with a
"partner" on the screen just as if the learner were having a real
conversation. Further, in the "Repeat-After-Me" session, learners are
given cues in a very realistic fashion, i.e., verbal, non-verbal, and
situational cues all occur together, so that learners can practice their lines
with the appropriate body language. Because learners can practice dialogues in
this environment and they can do so at their own pace, it is expected that they
can achieve not only a higher but also a broader level of mastery of the model
dialogues than they could using traditional methods. Thus, it is likely that
learners who have practiced model dialogues with Nihongo Partner will be well
prepared for role plays and other advanced communicative activities in class.
Moreover, LP will help learners build self-confidence and reduce personal
anxiety, which will in turn contribute to to an even higher mastery of
communicative skills.
Second, language learning with Nihongo
Partner enables instructors to redefine home, lab, and class activities so that
the distribution of activities can be optimized and total achievement can be
maximized. To be more specific, learners can concentrate on learning linguistic
items at home (e.g., grammar, vocabulary) and on acquiring linguistic skills
and preparation for in-class communicative activities at the lab (e.g., mechanical
drills, pattern drills; mastering model dialogues). Class time can then be used
for advanced communicative activities which are hard for learners to do on
their own (e.g., role plays, simulations).
Third, Nihongo Partner enables learners to
master model dialogues with minimum effort for several reasons. First, because
NP's model dialogues are short (usually 4 to 6 lines), they do not put a heavy
burden of memorization on learners even when the dialogues include new grammar
or vocabulary items. Second, NP's dialogues are well-focused in terms of
functions and situations, which makes it easy for learners to internalize the
dialogue schemes. In addition, NP's model dialogues are relevant to their
current daily lives and/or applicable to situations they are likely to
encounter in the future, which gives learners a strong motivation to learn the
materials.
Fourth, because of the way NP's video
segment database is designed, instructors can customize their own lesson menus
by choosing desired segments from the standard library. If suitable segments
are not available in the standard library, instructors can create and add new
segments to the database easily. Thus, LP can be used in a wide variety of
instructional situations regardless of the proficiency level of students, the
course objectives, or the textbooks being used.
In conclusion, Nihongo Partner is a
powerful language learning tool which was designed based on communicative
language teaching theories and recent advanced computer technologies. LP aims to
change the conventional ways of conversation practice by providing individual
practice environments that are realistic. As the merits mentioned above
indicate, language instruction with Nihongo Partner promises to have
considerable impact on current language learning.
Notes
[1] Richards and Rogers (1986) describe the
communicative approach as "an approach (and not a method) that aims to (a)
make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and (b) develop
procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the
interdependence of language and communication." (p. 66) For a comparison
of the audio-lingual method and the communicative approach, see Finocchiaro and
Brumfit (1983).
[2] See Yalden (1983) for CLT-based
syllabuses.
[3] See Swan (1985), Enright and McCloskey
(1985), and Ellis (1986) for criticisms of CLT.
[4] See the Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
in Krashen (1982) for the distinction of learning and acquisition. Also, see
Savignon (1983) for the elements of communicative competence.
[5] See Paulston (1972), Rivers (1976), and
Takanashi (1992).
References
Croft, K. (ed.) 1972. Readings Cambridge , MA : Winthrop
Ellis, R. 1986. The Study of Second
Language Acquisition. Oxford : Oxford University
Enright, D. S. and M. L. McCloskey. 1985.
"Yes, talking!: Organizing the Classroom to PRomote Second Language
Acquisition." TESOL Quarterly, 19:3, 431-453.
Finocchiaro, M. and C. Brumfit. 1983. The
Functional-Notional Approach-From Theory to Practice. Oxford :
Oxfrod University
Krashen, S. D. 1982. Principles and
Practice in Second Language Acquisition. London
Paulston, C. B. 1972. "The Sequencing
of Structural Pattern Drills." In Croft, K. (ed.), 148-162.
Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rogers. 1986.
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge :
Cambridge University
Rivers, W. M. 1976. Speaking in Many
Tongues. (2nd ed.) Rowley , MA
Swan, M. 1985. "A Critical Look at the
Communicative Approach (1)." ELT Journal, 39:1, 2-12.
Savignon, S. J. 1983. Communicative
Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Reading , MA
Takanashi, Y. 1992.
"Komyunikeeshon-katsudou no seiritsujouken" (Conditions for
communication activities). Gendai-eigokyouiku, June 1992, 14-17. Tokyo
Yalden, J. 1983. Principles of Course
Design for Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University
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